syllabus purebio

SUBJECT CONTENT:
TOPIC/CONTENT	LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Cell Structure & Organization ü plant cells ü animal cells ü specialised cells ü tissues ü organs	Examine under the microscope an animal cell (e.g. From fresh liver) and a plant cell (Elodea, a moss, onion epidermis, or any suitable locally available material), using an appropriate temporary staining technique, such as iodine or methylene blue. Draw diagrams to represent observations of the plant and animal cells examined above. Identify from diagrams or photomicrographs, the cell wall, cell membrane, sap vacuole, cytoplasm, nucleus and chloroplasts in a plant cell. Identify from fresh preparations or on diagrams or photomicrographs, the cell membrane, nucleus an cytoplasm in an animal cell Compare the visible differences in structure of the animal and the plant cells examined State the function of the cell membrane in controlling the passage of substances into and out of the cell. State in simple terms, the relationship between cell function and cell structure for the following: absorption - root hair cells; conduction and support - xylem vessels; transport of oxygen - red blood cells
2. Diffusion & Osmosis ü diffusion ü osmosis ü active transport	Define diffusion as the movement of molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration, down a concentration gradient Define osmosis as the passage of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their lower concentration, through a partially permeable membrane Describe the importance of a water potential gradient in the uptake of water by plants and the effects of osmosis on plant and animal tissues Define active transport and discuss its importance as an energy-consuming process by which substances are transported against a concentration gradient, as in ion uptake by root hairs and uptake of glucose by cells in the villi.
3. Enzymes ü enzyme action ü effects of temperature ü effects of pH	Define enzymes as proteins which function as biological catalysts Explain enzyme action in terms of the 'lock and key' hypothesis. Investigate and describe the effect of temperature and of pH on enzyme activity.
4. Plant Nutrition ü photosynthe-sis ü leaf structure ü mineral nutrition	Understand that photosynthesis the fundamental process by which plants manufacture carbohydrates from raw materials Investigate the necessity for chlorophyll, light and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis using appropriate controls. State the equation (in words or symbols) for photosynthesis Investigate and state the effect of varying light intensity, Carbon dioxide concentration and temperature on the rate of photosynthesi(e.g. in submerged aquatic plants) Understand the concept of limiting factors in photosynthesis Describe the intake of carbon dioxide and water in plants Understand that chlorophyll traps light energy and converts it into chemical energy for the formation of carbohydrates and their subsequent storage. Explain why most forms of life are completely dependent on photosynthesis Identify and label the cellular and tissue structure of a dicotyledonous leaf, as seen in cross section under the microscope and describe the significance of these features in terms of function, i.e. distribution of chloroplasts-photosynthesis; stomata and mesophyll cells-gaseous exchange vascular bundles-transport Understand the effect of lack of nitrate and magnesium ions on the plant growth
5. Animal Nutrition ü nutrients ü diet ü world food supplies ü food tests - starch (iodine solution); - reducing sugars (Benedict's solution); - protein (Biuret's test); - fats (ethanol) ü human alimentary canal - mouth - salivary glands - oesophagus stomach - duodenum - pancreas - gall bladder - liver - ileum - colon - rectum - anus ü stages of animal nutrition - ingestion - digestion - absorption - assimilation - egestion ü chemical digestion - amylase - protease - lipase	List the chemical elements which make up carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Food tests List the principal sources of, and describe the dietary importance of carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins (C and D only), mineral salts(calcium and iron only), fibre(roughage) and water. Describe the deficiency symptoms of vitamins C and D and mineral salts: calcium and iron Understand the concept of a balanced diet. Explain why diet, especially energy intake, should be related to age, sex and activity of an individual State the effects of malnutrition in relation to: starvation, heart disease, constipation and obesity Discuss the problems which contribute to famine(unequal distribution of food, drought and flooding, increasing population) Identify the main regions of the alimentary canal and the associated organs. Describe the main functions of these organs Identify the different types of human teeth and describe their structure and functions. State the causes of dental decay and describe the proper care of teeth Describe peristalsis Explain why most foods must be digested; Describe : digestion in the alimentary canal, the functions of enzymes & their products Describe the structure of a villus including the roles of capillaries and lacteals. Describe the significance of villi in increasing the internal surface area State the function of the hepatic portal vein as the route taken by most of the food absorbed from the small intestine State: - that large molecules are synthesised from smaller basic units: glycogen from glucose; proteins from amino acids; lipids from glycerol and fatty acids; - the role of the liver in the metabolism of glucose and amino acids; - the role of fat as a storage substance; - that the formation of urea and the breakdown of alcohol occur in the liver.
6. Transport in Humans ü circulatory system ü heart ü blood vessels ü blood ü double circulation	Describe the circulatory system as a system of tubes with a pump and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood Describe the double circulation in terms of a low pressure circulation to the lungs and a high pressure circulation to the body tissues and relate these differences to the different functions of the two circuits Name the main blood vessels to and from the heart, lungs, liver and kidney Describe the structure and function of the heart in terms of muscular contraction and the working of valves Compare the structure and function of arteries, veins and capillaries Investigate and state the effect of physical activity on pulse rate Describe coronary heart disease in terms of the occlusion of coronary arteries and state the possible causes(diet, stress, smoking) and preventive measures Identify red and white blood cells as seen under the microscope on prepared slides, and in diagrams and photomicrographs List the components of blood as red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, plasma State the functions of blood: - red blood cells-haemoglovin and oxygen transport; - white blood cells-phagocytosis, antibody formation and tissue rejection; - platelets-fibrinogen to fibrin causing clotting; - plasma-transport of blood cells, ions, soluble food substances, hormones, carbon dioxide, urea, vitamins, plasma proteins. Describe the transfer of materials between capillaries and tissue fluid
7. Transport in Flowering Plants ü water and ion uptake ü transpiration ü translocation	Relate the structure and functions of root hairs to their surface area, and to water and ion uptake State that transpiration is the loss of water vapour from the leaves thru the stomata Describe: how water vapour loss is related to cell surfaces, air spaces and stomata; the effects of variation of temperature, humidity and light intensity on transpiration rate; how wilting occurs Investigate, using a suitable stain, the pathway of water in a cut stem Explain the movement of water thru the stem in terms of transpiration pull Identify the positions of xylem and phloem tissues as seen in transverse sections of unthickened, herbaceous, dicotyledonous roots, stems, and leaves State the functions of xylem and phloem.
8. Respiration ü aerobic respiration ü anaerobic respiration ü human gaseous exchange	Define respiration as the release of energy from food substances in all living cells Define aerobic respiration as the release of a relatively large amount of energy by the breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen State the equation for aerobic respiration Name and state the uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the maintenance of a constant body temperature Define anaerobic respiration as the release of a relatively small amt. of energy by the breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen State the equation for anaerobic respiration Describe the effect of lactic acid production in muscles during exercise Investigate and state the differences between inspired and expired air Investigate and state the effect of physical activity on rate and depth of breathing Identify on diagrams and name the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated capillaries State the characteristics of, and describe the role of the exchange surface of the alveoli in gaseous exchange Describe the role of cilia, diaphragm, ribs and intercostal muscles in breathing.
9. Excretion ü excretory organs ü structure and function of the kidneys ü kidney dialysis	Define excretion as the removal of toxic materials and the waste products of metabolism from organisms Describe the removal of carbon dioxide from the lungs Identify diagrams and name: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra and state the function of each. (The function of the kidney should be described simply as removing urea and excess water from the blood). (Details of kidney structure and nephron are not required.) Describe dialysis in kidney machines as the diffusion of waste products and salts(small molecules)thru a membrane; large molecules(e.g.protein) remain in the blood
10. Homeostasis ü structure and function of the skin	Define homeostasis as the maintenance of a constant internal environment Explain the concept of control by negative feedback Identify on a diagram of the skin: hairs, sweat glands, temperature receptors, blood vessels and fatty tissue Describe the maintenance of a constant body temperature in humans in terms of insulation and the role of: temperature receptors in the skin, sweating, shivering, blood vessels near the skin surface and the coordinating role of the brain.
11. Coordination & Response ü nervous system - cerebrum - cerebellum - pituitary gland - hypothalamus - medulla - spinal cord - nerves. ü receptors ü reflex action ü hormones	State that the nervous system-brain, spinal cord and nerves, serves to coordinate and regulate body functions Identify on diagrams the central nervous system and its parts. Describe the principal functions of the above structures in terms of coordinating and regulating bodily functions. Describe the gross structure of the eye as seen in front view and in horizontal section. State the principal functions of the parts of the eye in producing a focused image of near and distant objects on the retina. Describe the pupil reflex in response to dim and bright light. Outline the functions of sensory neurons, relay neurons and motor neurons. Discuss the function of the brain and spinal cord in producing a coordinated response as a result of a specific stimulus(reflex action) Define a hormone as a chemical substance, produced by a gland, carried by the blood, which alters the activity of one or more specific target organs and is then destroyed by the liver. State the role of the hormone adrenaline in boosting blood glucose levels and give examples of situations in which this may occur. Describe the signs (increased blood glucose level, glucose in urine) and treatment (administration of insulin) of diabetes mellitus.
12. Support, Movement & Locomotion ü bones ü joints ü antagonistic muscles	Identify and describe , from diagrams, photographs and real specimens, the main bones of the fore-limb (humerus, radius, ulna and scapula) of a mammal Describe the type of movement permitted by the ball and socket joint and the hinge joint of the fore-limb. Describe the action of the antagonistic muscles at the hinge joint.
13. The Use & Abuse of Drugs ü antibiotics ü effects of heroin ü effects of alcohol ü effects of tobacco smoke	Define a drug as any externally administered substance which modifies or affects chemical reactions in the body Describe the medicinal use of antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial infection Describe the effects of the abuse of heroin: a powerful depressant, problems of addiction, severe withdrawal symptoms, associated problems such as crime and infection e.g. AIDS Describe the effects of excessive consumption of alcohol: reduced self-control, depressant, effect on reaction times, damage to liver, social implications Describe the effects of tobacco smoke and its major toxic components(nicotine, tar and carbon monoxide) on health: strong association with bronchitis , emphysema, lung cancer and heart disease, and the association between smoking during pregnancy and reduced birth weight of the baby. Recognize the fact that many people regard smoking as no longer socially acceptable.
14. Microorganisms & Biotechnology ü microorganisms ü food biotechnology ü industrial biotechnology	List the main characteristic of the following groups: viruses, bacteria, fungi. Outline the role of microorganism in decomposition Explain the role of yeast in the production of bread and alcohol Outline the role of bacteria in yoghurt and cheese production Describe the use of fermenters for large scale production of antibiotics and single cell protein Describe the role of the fungus of Penicillium in the production of penicillin.
15. Relationships of Organisms with One Another & with the Environment ü energy flow ü food chains and food webs ü carbon cycle ü nitrogen cycle ü parasitism ü effects of man on the ecosystem ü pollution ü conservation	State that the Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems. Describe the non-cyclical nature of energy flow Define the following terms and establish the relationship of each in food web: producer; consumer; herbivore; carnivore; decomposer; food chain Describe energy losses between trophic levels and infer the advantages of short food chains Describe and interpret pyramids of numbers and biomass Describe and state the importance of the carbon cycle Describe the nitrogen cycle. (Details of denitrification and the names of individual bacteria are not required.) Understand the role of the mosquito as a vector of disease Describe the transmission and control of the malarial pathogen (details of the life cycle of the pathogen are not required) Describe the effects of Man on the ecosystem with emphasis on examples of international importance (tropical rain forests, oceans, important rivers) Describe the consequences of deforestation in terms of effects on: soil stability, climate, local human populations Evaluate the effects of : water pollution by sewage, by inorganic waste and by nitrogen-containing fertilisers; air pollution by sulphur dioxide an oxides of nitrogen (acid rain); pollution due to insecticides Discuss reasons for conservation of species with reference to maintenance of biodiversity, management of fisheries and management of timber production Discuss reasons for recycling of materials with reference to named examples
16. Development of Organisms & Continuity of Life ü asexual reproduction ü sexual reproduction in plants ü sexual reproduction in humans ü sexually transmitted diseases	Define asexual reproduction as the process resulting in the production of genetically identical offspring from one parent Describe one named, commercially important application of asexual reproduction in plants State that gametes are the result of reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved Define sexual reproduction as the process involving the fusion of nuclei to form a zygote and the production of genetically dissimilar offspring Identify and draw, using a hand lens if necessary , the sepals, petals, stamens and carpels of one, locally available, named, insect-pollinated, dicotyledonous flower, and examine the pollen grains under a microscope State the functions of the sepals, petals, anthers and carpels Use a hands lens to identify and describe the anthers and stigmas of one, locally available, named, wind-pollinated flower, and examine the pollen grains under a microscope Outline the process of pollination and distinguish between self-pollination and cross-pollination Compare, using fresh specimens, an insect-pollinated and a wind-pollinated flower Describe the growth of the pollen tube, and its entry into the ovule followed by fertilization (production of endosperm and details of development are not required) Investigate and describe the structure of a non-endospermic seed in terms of the embryo (radicle, plumule, and cotyledons) and testa, protected by the pericarp (fruit wall) State that the seed and fruit dispersal by wind and by animals provides a means of colonising new areas Describe the external features of one, locally available, named example of a wind-dispersed and a named animal-dispersed fruit or seed. Investigate and state the environmental conditions which affect germination of seeds: suitable temperature, water and oxygen Describe the uses of enzymes in the germination of seeds Identify on diagrams of the male reproductive system and give the functions of : sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra, penis, testes and scrotum. Identify the female reproductive system and give functions of: ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina Compare male and female gametes in terms of size, numbers and mobility Describe the menstrual cycle with reference to the alternation of menstruation and ovulation, the natural variation in its length, and the fertile and infertile phases of the cycle Describe fertilisation and early development of the zygote simply in terms of the formation of a ball of cells which becomes implanted in the wall of the uterus. State the function of the amniotic sac and the amniotic fluid Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of dissolved nutrients, gases and excretory products (no structural details are required) Describe the special dietary needs of a pregnant woman Describe the advantages of breast milk compared with bottle milk Describe the following methods of birth-control: natural, chemical (spermicides), mechanical, hormonal and surgical Explain that syphilis is caused by a bacterium which is transmitted during sexual intercourse aa) describe the symptoms, signs, effects and treatment of syphilis bb) discuss the spread of (HIV) and methods by which it may be controlled.
17. Inheritance ü variation ü chromosomes and DNA ü monohybrid inheritance ü selection ü genetic engineering	Describe the difference between continuous and discontinuous variation and give examples of each State that a chromosome includes a long DNA molecule State that DNA is divided up into sections called genes Explain that genes may be copied and passed un to the next generation Define a gene as a unit of inheritance and distinguish clearly between the terms gene and allele Describe complete dominance using the terms dominant, recessive, phenotype, genotype. Describe mutation as a change in the structure of a gene(sickle cell anaemia) or in the chromosome number(47 in Down syndrome instead of 46) Name radiation and chemicals as factors which may increase the rate of mutation Predict the results of simple crosses with expected ratios of 3:1 and 1:1, using the terms homozygous, heterozygous, F1generation and F2 generation Explain why observed ratios often differ from expected ratio, esp when there are small numbers of progeny Explain codominance by reference to the inheritance of the ABO blood group phenotypes(A, B, AB, O, gene alleles I^A I^B AND I^O) Describe the determination of sex in humans Describe variation and state that competition leads to differential survival of, and reproduction by, those organisms best fitted to the environment Assess the importance of natural selection as a possible mechanism of evolution Describe the role of artificial selection in the production of economically important plants and animals Explain that DNA controls the production of proteins State that each gene controls the production of 1 protein Explain that genes may be transferred between cells.(reference should be made to transfer between organisms of the same or different species) Explain that the gene that controls the production of human insulin can be inserted into bacterial DNA Understand that such genetically engineered bacteria can be used to produce human insulin commercially Discuss some potential advantages and dangers of genetic engineering.

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